1,4-Dioxane is used as a stabilizer

1,4-Dioxane is a kind of Colorless clear liquids, it is also called 1,4-diethyleneoxide. The vapor pressure for 1,4-dioxane is 30 mm Hg at 20 C, the chemical formula of 1,4-dioxane is C4H8O2, and its molecular weight is 88.10 g/mol. It is stable, incompatible with oxidizing agents, oxygen, halogens, reducing agents, moisture. Highly flammable – note wide explosive range. May form explosive peroxides in storage. The CAS Registry Number is 123-91-1.

1,4-Dioxane is used mainly as a stabilizer for the solvent trichloroethane. It is an occasionally used solvent for a variety of practical applications as well as in the laboratory. It is used as a solvent for cellulose acetate, ethyl cellulose, benzyl cellulose, resins, oils, waxes, some dyes, and other organic and inorganic compounds.

1,4-Dioxane(CAS NO:123-91-1) ether is rather insoluble in water, whereas dioxane is miscible and in fact is hygroscopic. At standard pressure, the mixture of water and dioxane in the ratio 17.9:82.1 by mass is a positive azeotrope that boils at 87.6 C. 1,4-Dioxane is a versatile aprotic solvent. The oxygen atom is Lewis basic, so it is able to solvate many inorganic compounds. Because of its lower toxicity, it is substituted for tetrahydrofuran (THF) in some processes.

However, it has a higher boiling point (101 C versus 66 C for THF), which is important when reactions are to be conducted at a higher temperature.The oxygen centres are Lewis basic and so dioxane serves as a chelating diether ligand. It reacts with Grignard reagents to precipitate the magnesium dihalide.

1,4-dioxane is generated through a process called ethoxylation, in which ethylene oxide, a known breast carcinogen, is added to other chemicals to make them less harsh. This process creates 1,4-dioxane. For example, sodium laurel sulfate, a chemical that is harsh on the skin, is often converted to the less-harsh chemical sodium laureth sulfate.

The conversion process can lead to contamination of this ingredient with 1,4-Dioxane. Other common ingredients that may be contaminated by 1,4-Dioxane include PEG compounds and chemicals that include the clauses “xynol,” “ceteareth” and “oleth”. Most commonly, 1,4-Dioxane is found in products that create suds, like shampoo, liquid soap and bubble bath.

Environmental Working Group’s analysis suggests that 97 percent of hair relaxers, 57 percent of baby soaps and 22 percent of all products in Skin Deep may be contaminated with 1,4-Dioxane. Independent lab tests co-released by the Campaign for Safe Cosmetics in 2007 showed that popular brands of children’s bubble bath and body wash contained 1,4-Dioxane.

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Summary of Acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3CHO. It is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature and being produced on a large scale industrially. It is a kind of clear, colorless liquids with Molecular Weight: 44.05, CAS Registry Number: 75-07-0.

Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in coffee, bread, and ripe fruit, and is produced by plants. It is also produced by the partial oxidation of ethanol and is the cause of hangovers from alcohol consumption, produced in the liver by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.

Acetaldehyde(CAS NO:75-07-0) is stable, but air sensitive. Substances to be avoided include strong oxidizing agents, strong acids, reducing agents, alkalies, halogens, halogen oxides. Highly flammable. Vapour/air mixtures explosive over a very wide concentration range. May form peroxides in storage.

It is mainly used as an intermediate in the synthesis of other chemicals. It is ubiquitous in the environment and may be formed in the body from the breakdown of ethanol. Acute (short-term) exposure to acetaldehyde results in effects including irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.

Symptoms of chronic (long-term) intoxication of acetaldehyde resemble those of alcoholism. Acetaldehyde is considered a probable human carcinogen (Group B2) based on inadequate human cancer studies and animal studies that have shown nasal tumors in rats and laryngeal tumors in hamsters.

A product of alcohol metabolism that is more toxic than alcohol itself, acetaldehyde is created when the alcohol in the liver is broken down by an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase. The acetaldehyde is then attacked by another enzyme, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, and another substance called glutathione, which contains high quantities of cysteine (a substance that is attracted to acetaldehyde).

Together, the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and the glutathione form the nontoxic acetate (a substance similar to vinegar). This process works well, leaving the acetaldehyde only a short amount of time to do its damage if only a few drinks are consumed.

Unfortunately, the liver’s stores of glutathione quickly run out when larger amounts of alcohol enter the system. This causes the acetaldehyde to build up in the body as the liver creates more glutathione, leaving the toxin in the body for long periods of time.

In studies that blocked the enzyme that breaks down Acetaldehyde with a drug called Antabuse, designed to fight alcoholism, acetaldehyde toxicity resulted in headaches and vomiting so bad that even alcoholics were wary of their next drink. Although body weight is a factor, part of the reason women should not keep up with men drink-for-drink is because women have less acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and glutathione, making their hangovers worse because it takes longer for the body to break down the alcohol.

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What is Fluorescent Brightener KSN ?

The Fluorescent Brightener KSN belongs to benzothiazoie compound.Its appearance is yellow crystal powder.Its melting point is 278 C.It does not dissolve in water,and has no smell.Its performance is stable. The Molecular Formula is C26H26 N2 O2 S, Molecular Weight is 430.562.

It is stable, incompatible with strong oxidizing agents. Keep container closed when not in use. We should store it in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances. The CAS Registry Number is 7128-64-5.

Fluorescent Brightener KSN is suitable for the brightening of polyester,polyamide and polyacrylonitrile fibre,and for the brightening of plastics as well. It is mainly be used in whitening of polyester, polyamide, polyacrylonitrile fiber, the plastic film and all plastic pressing process. Can suitable for synthesizing high polymer including polymeric process.

The toxicological properties of Fluorescent Brightener KSN(CAS NO: 7128-64-5) have not been investigated. Use appropriate procedures to prevent opportunities for direct contact with the skin or eyes and to prevent inhalation. Compound is Non-hazardous,Non-Toxic/Non-Flammable.

First aid measures
Eyes:Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids.
Skin:Flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes.
Ingestion:Do NOT induce vomiting. If conscious and alert, rinse mouth and drink 2-4 cupfuls of milk or water.
Inhalation:Remove from exposure and move to fresh air immediately.

Fire fighting measures
General information: As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear. During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases may be generated by thermal decomposition or combustion.
Extinguishing Media: In case of fire, use water, dry chemical, chemical foam, or alcohol-resistant foam

Explore controls and person protection
Engineering Controls:Use adequate general or local exhaust ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below the permissible exposure limits.Use process enclosure, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering controls  to control airborne levels.
Personal Protective Equipment
Eyes:Wear safety glasses and chemical goggles if splashing is possible.
Skin:Wear appropriate protective gloves and clothing to prevent skin exposure.
Clothing:Wear appropriate protective clothing to minimize contact with skin.
Respirators:Wear a NIOSH/MSHA or European Standard EN 149 approved full-facepiece airline respirator in the positive pressure mode with emergency escape provisions.

Handing and storage
Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling Fluorescent Brightener KSN. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse. Avoid Fluorescent Brightener KSN contact with eyes, skin, and clothing. Avoid ingestion and inhalation.
Storage: Store Fluorescent Brightener KSN in a well closed container.

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What is Bromacil lithium salt ?

Bromacil lithium salt dark red liquid or reddish-brown gas at room temperature. It has a mass of 261 D. It is prepared for use as a powder . It is a weak organic acid, forming an ion with a valance of -1. Water solubility is pH dependent, and relatively low in deionized water. It has low volatility (vapor pressure 3.07 x 10-7 mmHg). The Molecular Formula is Br2, Molecular Weight is 159.808, and CAS Registry Number is 7726-95-6.

Bromacil lithium salt is an herbicide which inhibits photosynthesis. It is used for weed control on rights-of-way. In California, 4,478 lbs were applied in the year 2000. It is produced for commercial use by dissolving bromacil in a solution of lithium hydroxide (LiOH). Bromacil lithium salt(CAS NO: 7726-95-6) is a weak organic acid, with limited solubility. Much greater solubility is achieved in the ionic form produced by reaction with lithium hydroxide. It is stable, incompatible with reducing agents, alkali metals, powdered metals, steel, iron, copper, organic materials.

Because of the dissociation of this salt to bromacil and lithium ion, relevant data on the potential reproductive toxicity of bromacil and lithium are also provided. It is a substituted uracil herbicide used on food crops and rights-of-way. Lithium is the least massive of the alkali metals. It is used for a number of industrial applications. It is also used extensively for treatment of bipolar disorder (manic-depression) and acute mania.

Bromacil lithium salt is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It is hydroxylated, and excreted mainly in urine. Lithium is also rapidly absorbed from the GI tract. It does not undergo metabolism in the body, and is excreted mainly in urine.

Bromacil lithium salt is produced for commercial use by addition of bromacil to a solution of lithium hydroxide (LiOH). This produces a more concentrated solution than would addition of bromacil to, for example, water with approximately neutral pH, due to the relatively low solubility of bromacil at neutral pH. The greatest use was for weed control in rights-of-way.

Bromacil and lithium both have relatively low acute and chronic toxicity. In acute studies in rats with bromacil and bromacil lithium salt, females were somewhat more sensitive than males. On a molar basis, in rats the acute oral LD50 of lithium was about three times the LD50 of bromacil. The LD50 of bromacil lithium salt was about one-half that of bromacil. This could be due to the toxicological effect of lithium, or it could be due to the fact that bromacil lithium salt was administered as a true solution, whereas bromacil was administered as a suspension.

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The main usage of Tolyltriazole

Tolyltriazole is a kind of tan to light brown granules or beige pellets with a characteristic odor. The Molecular Formula is C7H7N3, Molecular Weight is 133.15 . It is stable in acids and alkalies solution, flammable, incompatible with strong oxidizing agents. The Density is 1.273 g/cm3, Boiling Point is 289.3 C at 760 mmHg, Melting Point is 76-87 C. Its EINECS is 249-596-6 and CAS Registry Number is 29385-43-1.

Tolyltriazole has three nitrogens. 1,2,3-Benzotriazole (1H-benzotriazole) has -N=N- bond whereas 2H-Benzotriazole has two -C=N-bonds. Benzotriazole is a parent material to produce UV-absorbers. 1,2,3-Benzotriazole: Benzene ring-fused azole compounds; white to off-white crystalline powder; insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, melting at 98.5 C. Azole is a five-membered heterocycle compound containing unsaturated bonds and Nitrogen atoms.

Tolyltriazole(CAS NO:29385-43-1) is a very effective corrosion inhibitor for copper and its alloys. It is especially useful in systems where fluids are in continuous contact with metals that require protection. In addition to copper, and its alloys, other metals that can be protected include zinc, cobalt and silver. When tolyltriazole is used in multi-metal systems with other corrosion inhibitors, it will also protect aluminum and steel.

It is mainly used as antirust and corrosion inhibitor for metals, and for antirust oil products, the gas phase corrosion inhibitor of copper and copper alloy, lubricant additive, cycle water treating compound and auto antifreeze. It also can be used with manifold sterilization algaecide and has a very fine corrosion mitigation effect on close cycle cooling water system.

Tolyltriazole has been widely used as a corrosion inhibitor for copper and copper alloy heat exchanger components in power plant cooling water systems. In this work the effectiveness of this compound protection in the presence of free chlorine, monochloramine, and ammonia was studied, in the context of using secondary treated municipal wastewater as cooling water.

Results indicated that the corrosiveness of ammonia becomes negligible in the presence of Tolyltriazole. Also, monochloramine represents a better disinfection agent in terms of copper corrosion protection by Tolyltriazole than free chlorine.

The packing density, film thickness, and number of layers of Tolyltriazole adsorbed on the Cu surface were estimated from measurements and compared with estimates from other studies. It was found that copper can work as a catalyst for free chlorine to degrade Tolyltriazole and that the surface packing density, film thickness, and number of layers increased in the presence of monochloramine.

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Sodium iodide is used to treat iodine deficiency

 

Sodium iodide is a white, crystalline salt with the chemical formula NaI, and is used in radiation detection, treatment of iodine deficiency, and as a reactant in the Finkelstein reaction. It is manufactured from the reaction between iodine and sodium hydroxide. It is stable under normal temperatures and pressures, the Water Solubility is 184 g/100 mL. It is an iodide salt that is formed into an injectable medicine, and the CAS Registry Number is 7681-82-5.

It has three important uses: Food supplement, Organic synthesis, Radiation physics and medicine.

As a Food supplement, it is commonly used to treat and prevent iodine deficiency. Iodized table salt contains one part sodium or potassium iodide to 100,000 parts of sodium chloride.

As a Organic synthesis,Sodium iodide(cas no: 7681-82-5) is used in the Finkelstein reaction, for conversion of an alkyl chloride into an alkyl iodide. This method relies on the insolubility of sodium chloride in acetone to drive the reaction: R-Cl + NaI → R-I + NaCl

As a medicine, Sodium iodide is used to treat or prevent iodine deficiency caused by poor nutrition or poor absorption by the body. It may also be used to treat a thyroid disorder.

Sodium iodide activated with thallium, NaI(Tl), when subjected to ionizing radiation, emits photons and is used in scintillation detectors, traditionally in nuclear medicine, geophysics, nuclear physics, and environmental measurements. NaI(Tl) is the most widely used scintillation material.

The crystals are usually coupled with a photomultiplier tube, in a hermetically sealed assembly, as sodium iodide is hygroscopic. Fine-tuning of some parameters can be achieved by varying the conditions of the crystal growth. Crystals with a higher level of doping are used in X-ray detectors with high spectrometric quality. Sodium iodide can be used both as single crystals and as polycrystals for this purpose.

The body needs iodine for normal growth and health. For patients who are unable to get enough iodine in their regular diet or who have a need for more iodine, sodium iodide may be necessary. Iodine is needed so that your thyroid gland can function properly.

Iodine deficiency in the United States is rare because iodine is added to table salt. Most people get enough salt from the foods they eat, without adding salt to their meals. Iodine deficiency is a problem in other areas of the world.

Lack of iodine may lead to thyroid problems, mental problems, hearing loss, and goiter.Injectable sodium iodide is administered only by or under the supervision of a health care professional. Some multivitamin/mineral preparations that contain sodium iodide are available without your health care professional’s prescription.

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The usages of Ampicillin

 

What is Ampicillin? Actually, Ampicillin is an antibiotic in the penicillin group of drugs. It fights bacteria in your body. It is a kind of Crystalline Solid,with the Molecular Formula:C16H19N3O4S and Molecular Weight:349.4. It is stable, but may be moisture sensitive,incopmpatible with strong oxidizing agents. Ampicillin is used to treat many different types of infections caused by bacteria, such as ear infections, bladder infections, pneumonia, gonorrhea, and E. coli or salmonella infection. The CAS Registry Number is 69-53-4.

We know Ampicillin is mainly used as a medicine, but what diseases can Ampicillin cure ?

An ampicillin resistance gene is commonly used as a selectable marker in routine biotechnology. Due to concerns over horizontal gene transfer to pathogenic organisms in the wild, the European Food Safety Authority restricts use of this gene in commercial genetically modified organisms. The enzyme responsible for degrading ampicillin is called beta-lactamase, in reference to the beta-lactam structure of ampicillin and related drugs.

Ampicillin(CAS NO:69-53-4) is closely related to amoxicillin, another type of penicillin, and both are used to treat urinary tract infections, otitis media, H. influenzae infection, salmonellosis, and Listeria meningitis.

It is used with flucloxacillin in the combination antibiotic co-fluampicil for empiric treatment of cellulitis, providing cover against group A streptococcal infection whilst the flucloxacillin acts against Staphylococcus aureus. Of concern is the number of bacteria that have become resistant to ampicillin, necessitating combination therapy or use of other antibiotics.

All Pseudomonas species and most strains of Klebsiella and Aerobacter are considered resistant. Additionally, resistance to ampicillin is seen in enterobacter, citrobacter, serratia, indole-positive proteus species, and other hospital-acquired gram negative infections.

Ampicillin has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. Until the introduction of ampicillin by the British company Beecham, penicillin therapies had only been effective against Gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and streptococci.

Ampicillin also demonstrated activity against Gram-negative organisms such as H. influenzae, coliforms and Proteus spp. Ampicillin was the first of a number of so-called broad-spectrum penicillins subsequently introduced by Beecham.

Ampicillin comes as a capsule, liquid, and pediatric drops to take by mouth. It is usually taken every 6 hours (four times a day). Shake the liquid and pediatric drops well before each use to mix the medication evenly. Use the bottle dropper to measure the dose of pediatric drops. The pediatric drops and liquid may be placed on a child’s tongue or added to formula, milk, fruit juice, water, ginger ale, or other cold liquid and taken immediately.

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How to protecte ourselves from the hurt of 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane

1-Bromo-3-chloropropane is a kind of clear to slightly yellow liquids, Density is 1.592, Boiling Point:142-145C, Melting Point:-59C,Flash Point:81C. We should store it in a cool, dry place. Store in a tightly closed container. It is insoluble, and stable under normal temperatures and pressures. The Molecular Formula is C3H6BrCl, Molecular Weight is 157.44, and CAS Registry Number is 109-70-6. 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane is mainly used in organic synthesis and pharmaceuticals.

1-Bromo-3-chloropropane is widely used in Food Additives, so what should we be careful for the safe information about1-Bromo-3-chloropropane(CAS NO: 109-70-6) ? Now, I will show you some important inforamtion about the compound.

First Aid Measures

Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.
Serious Skin Contact:
Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion:
Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed, call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.

Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls:
Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the airborne concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection:
Splash goggles. Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:
Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane.

Handling and Storage

Precautions:
Keep1-Bromo-3-chloropropane away from heat. Keep1-Bromo-3-chloropropane away from sources of ignition. Empty containers pose a fire risk, evaporate the residue under a fume hood. Ground all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane contact with skin and eyes. Keep 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, metals, alkalis.

Storage:
Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.

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What is Glutathione ?

Glutathione is a kind of white powder, it is stable, incompatible with strong oxidizing agents. The Molecular Formula is C10H17N3O6S, and Molecular Weight is 307.32. Its Density is 1.441 g/cm3, Boiling Point:410.1 C, Melting Point:182-192 C, Flash Point:754.5 C, the suitable Storage Temperature is 2-8 C, and CAS Registry Number is 70-18-8.

Glutathione may decrease the concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, neutrophils in lung tissue and increase the level of serum Ca2+ and be useful for the treatment of ANP. Glutathione production is regulated via distinct pathways in stressed and non-stressed cortical neurons.

Glutathione(CAS NO:70-18-8) is a very interesting, very small molecule that’s produced by the body and found in every cell,” says Gustavo Bounous, MD, director of research and development at Immunotec and a retired professor of surgery at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. “It’s the body’s most important antioxidant because it’s within the cell.”

The strong antioxidant effect of glutathione helps keep cells running smoothly. Bounous and another glutathione expert, Jeremy Appleton, ND, say it also helps the liver remove chemicals that are foreign to the body, such as drugs and pollutants.

Evidence for the important role that glutathione plays in health comes from studies in people who are severely ill.If you look in a hospital situation at people who have cancer, AIDS, or other very serious disease, almost invariably they are depleted in glutathione.The reasons for this are not completely understood, but we do know that glutathione is extremely important for maintaining intracellular health.

Glutathione is breathed in for treating lung diseases, including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, and lung disease in people with HIV disease.

Healthcare providers give glutathione as a shot (by injection into the muscle) for preventing poisonous side effects of cancer treatment and for treating the inability to father a child.

Healthcare providers also give glutathione intravenously for preventing “tired blood” in kidney patients undergoing hemodialysis treatment, preventing kidney problems after heart bypass surgery, treating Parkinson’s disease, improving blood flow and decreasing clotting in individuals with “hardening of the arteries”, treating diabetes, and preventing toxic side effects of chemotherapy.

Glutathione is critical for one simple reason: It recycles antioxidants. You see, dealing with free radicals is like handing off a hot potato. They get passed around from vitamin C to vitamin E to lipoic acid and then finally to glutathione which cools off the free radicals and recycles other antioxidants. After this happens, the body can “reduce” or regenerate another protective glutathione molecule and we are back in business.

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Pay more attention to Ethynyl estradiol

Ethynyl estradiol is a Off-White to Light-Yellow Crystalline Powder, it may be used as a metabolite of 17a-Ethynylestradiol. The Molecular Formula is C20H24O2, Molecular Weight is 296.40336. Keep Ethynyl estradiol in a cool, dry, dark location in a tightly sealed container or cylinder. Keep it away from incompatible materials, ignition sources and untrained individuals. Secure and label area. Protect containers/cylinders from physical damage. The CAS Registry Number is 57-63-6.

The first orally active semisynthetic steroidal estrogen, Ethynyl estradiol was synthesized in 1938 by Hans Herloff Inhoffen and Walter Hohlweg at Schering AG in Berlin.It was approved by the FDA in the U.S. on June 25, 1943 and marketed by Schering as Estinyl.The FDA withdrew approval of Estinyl effective June 4, 2004 at the request of Schering, who had discontinued marketing Estinyl.

Ethynyl estradiol(CAS NO: 57-63-6) is a hormone usually produced by the female ovaries and is crucial for normal female reproductive functioning. Estradiol is natural occurring form of estrogen. It helps the female reproductive organs to mature as well as helps the uterine wall prepare for the implantation of a fertilized egg.

But what side effects you know about Ethynyl estradiol? The most common side effects may include reducing cardiovascular risk, Gastrointestinal side effects, Endocrine side effects, Dermatologic side effects.

The effects of estrogen therapy in reducing cardiovascular risk are thought to be related to beneficial alterations in lipid profiles in treated women.Cardiovascular side effects have included studies suggesting that unopposed estrogen therapy decreased the risk of coronary heart disease by as much as 35%. Combination therapy with a progestin may have also decreased coronary risk. However, the extent of risk reduction with combination therapy has not been determined.

Gastrointestinal side effects have included frequent reports of nausea and vomiting. Some studies have demonstrated a 2 to 4 fold increase in gallbladder disease in postmenopausal women taking estrogen therapy.

Endocrine side effects have included increased levels of thyroxin-binding globulin, leading to an increase in total thyroid serum levels and a decrease in resin uptake of T3. Free thyroid hormone levels remain unchanged. Decreased fasting plasma glucose levels have been reported.

Dermatologic side effects have included chloasma or melasma. Resolution has not occurred in all cases following discontinuation of estrogen therapy. Scalp hair loss, hirsutism, erythema nodosum, and hemorrhagic eruptions have occurred.

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